COMPUTER SECURITY
LESSON 16
COMPUTER SECURITY
DEFINITION OF COMPUTER SECURITY
Computer security means protecting our computer systems and the information they contain against unwanted access, damage, destruction or modification.
We need to protect our computer from any intruders such as hackers, crackers and script kiddie.
We do not want strangers to read our e-mail, use our computer to
attack other systems, send forged e-mail from our computer, or examine personal information stored on our computer such as financial statements.
TYPES OF COMPUTER SECURITY
Three types of computer security are:
a) hardware security
b) software security/data security
c) network security
a) HARDWARE SECURITY
Hardware security refers to security measures used to protect the hardware specifically the computer and its related documents.
The examples of security measures used to protect the hardware include PC-locks, keyboard-locks, smart cards and biometric devices.
b) SOFTWARE AND DATA SECURITY
Software and data security refers to the security measures used to protect the software and the loss of data files.
Examples of security measures used to protect the software are activation code and serial number.
An example of security measure used to protect the loss of data files is the disaster recovery plan method. The idea of this plan is to store data, program and other important documents in a safe place that will not be affected by any major destruction.
c) NETWORK SECURITY
The transfer of data through network has become a common practice and the need to implement network security has become significant.
Network security refers to security measures used to protect the network system. One example of network security measures is firewall. With firewall, network resources can be protected from the outsiders.
PERSONAL COMPUTER SECURITY CHECKLIST
In order to make sure our computers are secured, here are the computer
security checklist to follow.
ü Do not eat, drink or smoke near the computer
ü Do not place the computer near open windows or doors
ü Do not subject the computer to extreme temperatures
ü Clean the equipment regularly
ü Place a cable lock on the computer
ü Use a surge protector
ü Store disks properly in a locked container
ü Maintain backup copies of all files
ü Stores copies of critical files off sites
ü Scan a floppy disk before you open it
ü Do not open any unknown email received
LESSON 17
INTRODUCTION COMPUTER THREATS
The computer is a great tool to store important information. In certain cases, the information is very vital that losing it will harm the computer system.
Computer threats can come from many ways either from human or natural disasters. For example, when someone is stealing your account information from a trusted bank, this threat is considered as a human threat. However, when your computer is soaked in heavy rain, then that is a natural disaster threat.
MALICIOUS CODE
Malicious code is also known as a rogue program. It is a threat to computing assets by causing undesired effects in the programmer’s part. The effect is caused by an agent, with the intention to cause damage.
The agent for malicious code is the writer of the code, or any person who causes its distribution. There are various kinds of malicious code. They include virus, Trojan horse, logic door, trapdoor and backdoor, worm and many others.
a) VIRUS
· a program that can pass on the malicious code to other programs by modifying them
· attaches itself to the program, usually files with .doc, .xls and .exe extensions
· destroys or co-exists with the program
· can overtake the entire computing system and spread to other systems
b) TROJAN HORSE
· a program which can perform useful and unexpected action
· must be installed by users or intruders before it can affect the system’s assets
· an example of a Trojan horse is the login script that requests for users’ login ID and password
· the information is then used for malicious purposes
c) LOGIC BOMB
· logic bomb is a malicious code that goes off when a specific condition occurs.
· an example of a logic bomb is the time bomb
· it goes off and causes threats at a specified time or date
e) TRAPDOOR OR BACKDOOR
· a feature in a program that allows someone to access the program with special privileges
f) WORM
· a program that copies and spreads itself through a network
Primary Differences Between
| Worm | Virus |
| Operates through the network | Spreads through any medium |
| Spreads copies of itself as a standalone program | Spreads copies of itself as a program that attaches to other programs |
HACKER
Hacking is a source of threat to security in computer. It is defined as unauthorised access to the computer system by a hacker.
Hackers are persons who learn about the computer system in detail. They write program referred to as hacks. Hackers may use a modem or cable to hack the targeted computers.
NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS
Computers are also threatened by natural or environmental disaster. Be it at home, stores, offices and also automobiles.Examples of natural and environmental disasters:
- Flood
- Fire
- Earthquakes, storms and tornados
- Excessive Heat
- Inadequate Power Supply
THEFT
Two types of computer theft:
1) Computer is used to steal money, goods, information and resources.
2) Stealing of computer, especially notebook and PDAs.
Three approaches to prevent theft:
1) prevent access by using locks, smart-card or password
2) prevent portability by restricting the hardware from being moved
3) detect and guard all exits and record any hardware transported
LESSON 18
SECURITY MEASURES
Today, people rely on computers to create, store and manage critical information. It is important that the computer and the data they store are accessible and available when needed. It is also important that users take measures to protect their computers and data from lost, damage and misused.
Security measures mean the precautionary measures taken toward possible danger or damage. There are 6 type of security measures.
1) DATA BACKUP
Data Backup is a program of file duplication. Backups of data applications are necessary so that they can be recovered in case of an emergency.
Depending on the importance of the information, daily, weekly or biweekly backups from a hard disk can be performed.
2) CRYPTOGRAPHY
Cryptography is a process of hiding information by altering the actual information into different representation, for example, an APA can be
written as I? X.
Almost all cryptosystems depend on a key such as a
password like the numbers or a phrase that can be used to encrypt or decrypt a message.
The traditional type of cryptosystem used on a computer network is called a symmetric secret key system.
3) ANTIVIRUS
An antivirus program protects a computer against viruses by identifying and removing any computer viruses found in the computer memory, on
storage media or incoming e-mail files.
An antivirus program scans for programs that attempt to modify the boot program, the operating system and other programs that normally are read from but not modified.
IDENTIFYING VIRUS
Two technique are used to identify the virus.
| VIRUS SIGNATURE | INOCULATING A PROGRAM FILE |
| Also called a virus definition is a specific pattern of the virus code. | The antivirus program records information such as the file size and file creation date in a separate inoculation file. The antivirus program then uses this information to detect if a virus tampers with the data describing the inoculated program file. |
If an antivirus program identifies an infected file, it attempts to remove its virus, worm or Trojan horse. If the antivirus program cannot remove the infection, it often quarantines the infected file. Quarantine is a separate
area of a hard disk that holds the infected file until the infection can be removed. This step ensures other files will not become infected. Patents for inventions Utility, design or plant patents that protect inventions and improvements to existing inventions
4) ANTI-SPYWARE
Spyware is a program placed on a computer without the user’s knowledge. It secretly collects information about the user.
The spyware program communicates information to
the outside source.
An anti-spyware application program sometime called tracking software or a spybot is used to remove spyware.
Among of the popular anti-spyware programs are:
• Spybot Search and Destroy
• Ad-aware
• Spyware Blaster
5) FIREWALL
Firewall is a piece of hardware or software which functions in a networked environment to prevent some communications forbidden by the security
policy.
Firewall implement a security policy. It might permit limited access from in or outside the network perimeters or from certain user or for certain activities.
6) HUMAN ASPECTS OF SECURITY MEASURES
Human aspects refer to the user and also the intruder of a computer system.
It is one of the hardest aspects to give protection to.
The most common problem is the lack of achieving a good information security procedure.
LESSON 19
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SECURITY THREATS AND SECURITY MEASURES
Security threats may come from in many forms. For example, when someone is invading your account information from a trusted bank, this act is considered as a security threat.
Security measures can be used to prevent this invader from getting the account information. For example, the bank can use a firewall to prevent unauthorised access to its database.
SECURITY THREADS
Security threats may come from in many forms. For example, when someone is invading your account information from a trusted bank, this act is considered as a security threat.
Security measures can be used to prevent this invader from getting the account information. For example, the bank can use a firewall to prevent
unauthorised access to its database.
MALICIOUS CODE THREATS VS. ANTIVIRUS AND ANTI-SPYWARE
Security threats include virus, Trojan horse, logic bomb, trapdoor and backdoor, and worm.
Antivirus and anti-spyware can be used to protect the computer from the threats by:
- limiting connectivity
- allowing only authorised media for loading data and software
- enforcing mandatory access controls
- blocking the virus from the computer program
HACKING VS. FIREWALL
Hacking is an unauthorised access to the computer system done by a hacker. We can use firewall or cryptography to prevent the hacker from accessing our computers.
A firewall permits limited access to unauthorised users or any activities from the network environment. Cryptography is a process of hiding information by changing the actual information into different representation, for example, an
NATURAL DISASTER VS. DATA BACKUP
The natural and environmental disasters may include:
• flood
• fire
• earthquakes
• storms
• tornados
Natural disasters may threaten a computer’s hardware and software easily. Computers are also sensitive to their operating environment such as
excessive heat or the inadequacy of power supply.
The backup system is needed to backup all data and applications in the computer. With the backup system, data can be recovered in case of an emergency.
THEFT VS. HUMAN ASPECTS
Computer theft can be of two kinds:
§ can be used to steal money, goods, information and computer resources
§ the actual stealing of computers, especially notebooks and PDAs
Measures that can be taken to prevent theft:
- prevent access by using locks, smart-card or password
- prevent portability by restricting the hardware from being moved
- detect and guard all exits and record any hardware transported
BE SUPSPICIOUS OF
There are many instances where non-programmers develop applications which are not built with proper understanding of software engineering practices.
Data produced by such applications may not be correct and may risk corrupting data received from other sources that are not compatible with the application.
LESSON 20
SECURITY PROCEDURES
Computers should have alarm systems to guard them from any attacks such as viruses and data corruption. The alarm system is the security measures that we take to ensure its safety.
DATA PROTECTION
We need to protect the data in the computer as it may somehow get lost or corrupted due to some viruses or mishap like fire, flood, lightning, machine
failures and even human errors.
There are a few ways to protect the information namely:
• make backup files
• detect the virus and clean the computer
• warn others on virus attacks
1) BACKUP FILES
Users can do backups of file systems by:
- keeping the duplicated files in external storage such as in the floppy disk and thumb drive
- do backup frequently
2) DETECT VIRUS AND DO CLEANUP
A computer virus is able to affect and infect the way the computer works. Viruses can be detected when we run an antivirus program.We can also delete the infected files and documents.
3) WARN OTHERS ON VIRUS ATTACK
We can warn others on virus attacks or new viruses by sending e-mails to them.
DETECTING ILLEGAL ACCESS TO SYSTEMS
The computer system is able to detect any illegal access to the system by a user who does not have any authorisation. Basically, a corporation will simply use tcpwrappers and tripwire to detect any illegal access to their system. User's access will be reviewed periodically by computer operations. On going internal audits will be made to ensure detection of violations of security and unauthorised modifications to software and data .
TCPWRAPPERS
Tcpwrappers stop the attempted connection
examines its configuration files
will decide whether to accept or reject the request.
Tcpwrappers will control access at the application level, rather than at the socket level like iptables and ipchains. The system will run tcpwrappers to log access to ftp, tftp, rch, rlogin, rexec and telnet.
TRIPWIRE
Tripwire will detect and report on any changes in the thousands of strategic system files.
The system will run tripwire to determine if system files have changed.
PREVENTING ILLEGAL ACCESS TO SYSTEMS
Have any of you ever been to an airport? Do you know the do’s and don’ts when you are at the airport?
There are things that cannot be taken inside the airplane. It is for the purpose of security procedures.
It is the same as computer systems. It would not allow any unauthorised users to simply access the system.
Ways to prevent illegal access to systems:
- Run anlpassword to make password cracking difficult.
- Run tcpwrappers to check if the name for an ip address can be provided by DNC
- Use a callback system to prevent unauthorised use of stolen passwords.
PREVENTING ILLEGAL ROOT ACCESS
To prevent any illegal root access, we should have Sudo, so that people can perform on some machine without getting access to the entire root if that is not required. In addition, with Sudo we did not have to give out the root password.
Sudo stands for (Superuser do) and is a program in Unix, Linux and similar operating systems such as Mac OS X that allows users to run programs in the form of another user (normally in the form of the system's superuser).
Sudo allows a permitted user to execute a command as the superuser or another user, as specified in the sudoers file.
PATCH
Patch supplies small updates to software, provided that the source code is available.
Patch is a name of an UNIX utility. It applies a script
generated by the different program to a set of files
that allows changes from one file to be directly applied to another file.
Resources are not enough to patch all security holes that we hear about through the bugtraq list.
(Bugtraq is a full disclosure mailing list dedicated to the issues of computer security. On-topic discussions are new discussions about vulnerabilities, methods of exploitation and how to fix them. It is a high volume
mailing list and almost all new vulnerabilities are discussed there.)
LESSON 21
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN THE SOCIETY
The computer has change the society today as much as industrial revolution changed society in 18th and 19th century. People interacts directly with computer in education, finance, government, health care, science, publishing, tourism, and industry.
Computers help them to do their work faster and more efficient by using the software application that consist of special program for specific task.
SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS
Software applications are used for many reasons. Such as to enhance the learning process, to help in business activities, to assist the graphics and multimedia project and to fasilitate communication.
| Area | Examples of software applications |
| Home and Education | Integrated software, Personal finance, Legal, Tax Preparation, Clip Art/Image Gallery, Home Design/Landscaping and Reference |
| Business | Word Processing, Spreadsheet, Database, Presentation Graphics, Personal Information Manager, Software Suite, Project Management and Accounting |
| Graphics and Multimedia | Computer-aided design (CAD), Desktop Publishing, Paint/Image Editing, Video and Audio Editing, Multimedia Authoring and Web Page Authoring |
| Communication | E-mail, Web Browsers, Chat Rooms, Newsgroups, Instant Messaging, Groupware and Video Conferencing |
These software application comes in packages.
SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS PACKAGES
| Software Application | Examples of Popular Packages |
| Word Processing | Microsoft Word and Lotus Word Pro |
| Spreadsheet | Microsoft Excel and Lotus |
| Database | Microsoft Access and Microsoft Visual FoxPro |
| Presentation Graphics | Microsoft Power Point and Lotus Freelance Graphics |
| Personal Information Manager | Microsoft Outlook and Palm Desktop |
| Software Suite | Microsoft Office and Lotus SmartSuite |
| Project Management | Microsoft Project and Corel CATALYST |
| Accounting | MYOB and Peachtree Complete Accounting |
HOME AND EDUCATION
Today, computers are used in schools, colleges and universities in order to promote better education by using computers. In the labs, students use software packages to complete their assignments. At the same time, some educators use the computer-based training and web-based training as replacements for lecture presentation.
Some of the software applications that are usually used in schools and universities include Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop, Macromedia Flash, AutoCAD, Macromedia Dreamweaver and Macromedia Director.
COMPUTERS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION
Open Distance Learning (ODL) or online learning can be implemented as computers are the main medium in
delivering the knowledge from one location to the other locations.
This type of learning consists of online forum, discussion, quizzes, test questions and many more. The example of the Open Distance Learning institution is the Open
BUSINESS
People use finance or accounting software to balance check books, pay bills, track personal income and expenses, manage investments and evaluate their financial plans.
Accounting software helps companies to record and report their financial transactions. Examples of these software applications include MYOB, Intuit Quick Books and Peachtree Complete Accounting.
COMPUTERS IN BANKING
In the banking sector, many financial institutions offer online banking. People can access their financial records from anywhere in the world. One example of online banking is Maybank2u. (www.maybank2u.com)
Most of the packages on banking offer a variety of online services. Which requires access to the web.
For example we can track our investment online, compare insurance rates and do online banking.
INDUSTRY
By using the
Computers process this data and automatically update inventory, production, payroll and accounting records on the company’s network.
Examples of companies using this system are Proton(www.proton.com.my) and Perodua (www.perodua.com.my).
GRAPHICS
Computers are crucial in publishing especially in the process of making works available to the public. These works include magazines, books, newspapers, music and film production.
Special software applications are used to assist graphic designers to develop graphics, texts, photographs and composing songs.
Computer-Aided Design, Desktop Publishing, Paint/Image Editing, Video and Audio Editing and Multimedia Authoring are among the popular applications software.
COMMUNICATION
A government provides society with direction by
making and administering policies. Most government
offices or agencies have websites in order to provide
citizens with up-to-date or latest information.
Examples of software applications used for communication include e-mail, web browsers, newsgroups, instant messaging and video conferencing.
People can access government websites to:
- check information on taxes (www.hasil.org.my)
- apply for permits and licenses (www.jpj.gov.my)
- check for MyKad (www.jpn.gov.my)
- pay parking tickets and check summons (www.jpj.gov.my)
- renew vehicle registration (www.jpj.gov.my)
- register online for IPTA/IPTS application (www.moe.gov.my)
COMPUTERS IN TOURISM
Today, people will go online to get all related information about traveling. They can visit websites to get information on destinations, prices, hotels, flights and car rentals.
They can also purchase ticket online, all payments can be made by using credit card.
COMPUTERS IN THE HEALTHCARE
In the medical field, computers are very important in running the operations. Medical staffs use computers for various purposes, namely:
- maintaining patient records
- monitoring patients’ vital sign
- assisting doctors, nurses and technicians with medical tests by using computer and computerised devices .
- using medical software to help with researching and diagnosing health conditions.
Furthermore, computers and the internet are important sources for people to get all information on medical, nutrition, fitness and other tips from several available websites. The latest development in the medical field is telemedicine. This technology is meant to help professional to conduct live conference in separate locations around the globe.
SCIENCE
In the scientific world, computers are used in all fields of science from biology to astronomy to meteorology and others. These are things that
can be done by computers, namely:
- collecting, analyzing and modelling data
- serving as medium of communication with colleagues around the world
- contributing to new inventions or breakthrough in surgery, medicine and treatment
- imitating functions of the central nervous system, retina of the eye and others by tiny computers
- allowing a deaf person to listen through cochlear implant
LESSON 22
COMPUTER USERS
People around the world rely on computers to do so many things. They are from different backgrounds and are divided in 5 categories.
HOME USER
The computer is a basic necessity. Each home user spends time on the computer for different reasons:
- business
- communication
- entertainment
- education
SMALL OFFICE/HOME OFFICE (
To save cost,
Small Office or Home Office users include:
- accounting firms, travel agencies, florists and many more
These
- use desktop or notebook computers as well as telephone, handphones and PDAs in completing their tasks and communicating
- work in a small company or work as an individual at home
MOBILE USER
Network services are expanding to serve people across the country and the world. More users are becoming mobile users, who work on computer while they are away from their home or main offices.
Mobile users:
- include real estate agents, insurance agents, meter readers and journalists
- use notebook computers, Internet-enabled PDAs or smart phones
- work with basic business software such as word processing and spreadsheet business software
- use presentation graphics software to create and deliver presentations to a large
- audience by connecting a mobile computer or device to a video projector
POWER USER
Power users require the capabilities of workstation computers or other types powerful computers. The software that is used by power users is normally expensive because of their specialize design. Their computer have network access connections and internet connections.
Power users:
- include engineers, scientists, architects and virtual reality animators
- use computers with extremely fast processor, bigger storage and customised software
- work with mini computers that uses design to meet the organisational needs
- use software such as CAD,
LARGE BUSINESS USER
Each employee or customer who uses computer in large offices of company is a large business user. Large business users use a large network of computers. Use computers for basic business activities such as preparing bills for millions of customers, preparing payroll and managing thousands of items in the inventory.
Large business users:
- bank, insurance company, hypermarket
- use computers for basic business activities
- have e-commerce that allow customers and vendors to interact and do business transactions online therefore customers, vendors and other interested parties can access information on the web
- have e-mail and web browsers to enable communications among employees, vendors and customers
- provide kiosks in public locations
Many employees of large business telecommute, which means they work away from their offices workstation. They also have flexible schedule.
CURRENT
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
LESSON 23
HOW TO CONDUCT A STUDY
There are five basic steps to follow when we do a study.
- Get an overview of your topic.
- Narrow down the topic and form some specific questions related to it.
- Find study materials related to the topic.
- Evaluate study materials
- Write out study papers and cite sources
Examples of the terms usually used in a study.
- compare: to examine similarities or differences
- define: to provide clear and concise meaning
- discuss: to examine in detail and present arguments for and against
- explain: to tell how things work or come to be the way they are
STEP 1 - GET AN OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC
Familiarity
We need to familiarise ourselves with the topic before we start doing a study. This will allow us to spend more time developing a topic rather than using more time learning about the topic.
We also have to get a broader picture of the subject by focusing on the who, when, why, how and where questions.
Reference
Refer to a dictionary, encyclopedia, handbook, textbook, guide or bibliography which can provide an overview of the topic.
Brainstorming
Spend some time brainstorming about the topic and write down everything that we can think of about the topic.
STEP 2 - NARROW DOWN THE TOPIC
Narrow down the topic by reading the sources and form some specific questions related to the topic. By doing this, we may have awareness of the various aspects that we may want to study. However we need to understand that not all information is reliable and we have to differentiate between facts and opinions.
Objective Information
§ based on facts which can be verified
§ presents results of original study
§ often the view from experts in the subject area
§ presents analysis of facts from all sides of issue
Subjective Information
- based on what seems to be true
- reflects personal views or judgment
- often the views of individuals or groups
- may present an analysis of the facts from one side of an issue
STEP 3 - FIND STUDY MATERIALS
Study materials are available offline and online. We can search for the information that we want in books, journals, articles or other resource materials found in the library and the Internet.
A list of all the books, journals and electronic materials are available from the library. We can use the online databases to find the most useful materials for our study.
STEP 4 - EVALUATE STUDY MATERIALS
All selected materials need to be evaluated in four aspects:
| Aspects | Sample |
| Relevance | Does this publication help to answer the research question? If it does not find something else which does. |
| Reliability/Credibility | is the information accurate? has the information been peer reviewed? are the authors and publishers reputable? do they cite their credentials? are there footnotes and a bibliography? |
| Perspective | is this a primary source (presenting the author's own research and ideas) or a secondary source (summarising and discussing the research and ideas of others)? is the evident biased? Does the author attempt to sway the reader's opinion? |
| Update | how recent is the information published? how recent has it been updated? have there been new developments on the topic? could the information you are using be misleading because of the publication date? |
STEP 5 - WRITING OUT THE STUDY PAPER
When all resources are gathered, start writing the paper and cite all the sources of information used. These may include books, journals, articles and magazines.
LESSON 24
PRESENTING RESULT
A presentation should contain three well-defined sections, they are:
- Introduction
- is at the beginning of the research
- includes the objectives of the research
- provides a clear statement on why the study was undertaken
- includes the limitations/assumptions and analytical techniques
- Content
§ consists of facts or arguments related to subject matter
§ can be presented in an argument format or just as an overview
- Conclusion
§ is a review of content (not repetition of content)
§ relates to the statement of objectives in the introduction
§ should not introduce new issues
§ should contain judgment or decision that has been reached
BASIC NEEDS OF A GOOD STUDY PAPER
There are a variety of ways to write out your research. However, there is a set of basic requirements that must be followed when it comes to submitting or presenting written presentation.
- General Points
- number all pages
- use one side of A4 paper
- secure all pages with a staple (top left-hand corner)
- don’t use paper clips/pins or folders
- must be typed/word processed
- clear and easy to read print-out
- spell check your paper
- supply an estimated word count on the cover sheet
- include your name, course name and teacher’s name
- Style
§ double-spaced
§ 12 point minimum and 14 point maximum (with the exception of headings and footnotes)
§ 2 spaces after a full stop and 1 space following a comma, semi-colon or colon
§ no abbreviation such as ‘e.g.’, ‘&’ or ‘etc.’ unless it is included in a bracket. Write everything in full: ‘for example’, ‘that is’, ‘and so on’.
§ numerals are used when the number is more than two words; for tabulation; statistical discussion; sums of money; addresses; dates; time; and page, chapter, volume numbers (for example, 2 June, 2000)
§ consistency in style for example in writing out headings
- Quote
§ a direct quote must be placed in quotation
§ block quotes are used if a direct quote is more than three lines long.
§ if possible, paraphrase information in preference to using direct quotes.
§ use quotes and paraphrasing to support argument
- Clarity
- helps your readers understand your paper by organizing your paper well and don’t forget to insert the page numbers
- edit your work means reading through the paper several times before submission and don’t just rely on the rough spelling and grammar checks offered by your software.
- Indicating your intentions
§ in a complex study, the introduction of every section should inform the reader what to expect in that section should contain judgment or decision that has been reached.
- the final paragraph in each section should tie the contents of that section together with a short conclusion.
- do not use too many words to say what you are going to do and what you have done, keep to the necessary minimum
PREPARING A PRESENTATION
LESSON 25
DELEGATION OF
WHAT IS DELEGATION?
Delegation is the ability to assign tasks to others with the authority, responsibility and accountability to finish the tasks. This means it is not enough to just give out orders to people but as a team leader you also need to give specific instructions on what to do. Tell your team members that they are responsible for the task given to them and explain to them what would happen to the project if they failed to finish the task.
WHY DELEGATE TASKS?
Reasons why should I delegate tasks:
- will be able to save time
- help others to learn new skills, for example, how to negotiate and cooperate
- utilise individual's additional strengths and expertise
- will be able to achieve large goals by dividing them into smaller tasks
- promotes creativity and diversity because others may have better way doing things
- cut down on tasks that can be done just as well by others
WHAT TO DELEGATE?
In order to complete a team project, you will be asked to use your skills in research, presentation and task delegation. When working on a large project you must know what task to delegate and how to assign them.
- Questioning
- Discover a problem
- Form a question to answer the problem
- Planning
§ Set out steps to find answers
§ Select sources for possible answers
§ Plan a basic draft for reporting
§ Assign tasks to team members
§ Agree on contingency plans
- Gathering
§ Go to agreed sources of information
§ Collect information
- Sorting
§ Put similar information together
§ Highlight valuable credible information
- Synthesizing
§ Discuss information with others
§ Combine different information
- Evaluating
§ Discusses if the information gathered supports the answer
§ Test out solution and decision that supports the answer
- Reporting
§ Write or type out the report
§ Create an appropriate graphic or media
§ Prepare for Q & A
§ Prepare research
EXAMPLES OF TASK DELEGATION
| Scenarios | Good Techniques |
| “The head librarian wants us to finish the work by the end of the day, which is about | Set clear task deadline. |
| “We have to sort out these books according to their subjects. Remember to stick the correct book codes onto the books.” | Describe in detail the task objective. |
| “I will teach you the coding system.” | Help team member to perform task if needed. |
| “Chong, you take the science books and Indra, you take the art books.” | Delegate task to those qualified to do the job. |
| “I don’t know the coding system.” | Inform limitation of abilities or resource to other team members. |
| “So, is everybody clear on what needs to be done and when we should meet again later.” | Monitor task progress. |
LESSON 26
TOPICS FOR STUDY
In order to do the research, you need to follow this 5 steps.
STUDY TOPICS
Form into groups. Discuss with the team members and choose
- Copyright and piracy from a moral and legal standpoint.
- Credit card fraud on the Internet and its implications on the industry/ economy/government.
- Malaysian Cyber Law, Electronic Government Law.
The portfolio will contain:
- Team journal
- study project introduction page
- minutes of team meetings
- initial project plan/calendar
- conflict resolution report
- Initial framework for presentation
- Final presentation
The purpose of team journal is to keep track the progress of the project.
The team’s initial framework is where the team should do some basic study on the topic and decide what should be included in the presentation.
The print out of the final presentation will be given to the teacher for final grading.
SOURCE CITATION CARD
Source citation card is a note card in which you write the name of the article, author, book name, page numbers, where you found it, why it is good information and a short summary of the important points.
CREATING YOUR PRESENTATION
A presentation should:
- have at least 15 slides (not including the Title slide)
- have a Title slide
- introduce presentation
- include names of each member of the team
- use any design templates
- use at least 5 graphics (e.g.: clip art, photographs, word art and drawings)
- have some multimedia
- use animation on slides (be careful of very noisy ones!)
- use slide transitions
- use less text on the slides
- try presenting the information through pictures, graphs, mind maps or any other form of visual (as oppose to textual) presentation
- have a citation slide
- the last slide must list all of your citations and other related resources (where you got the content)
- remember to give credit to others!
THE FINAL PRESENTATION
Guidelines:
- each team member must speak during the presentation.
- each team will have 10 minutes to present.
- presenters should face the audience and not just read from the screen or paper.
Tips:
- practice in advance.
- prepare notes on paper or cue cards to help you remember what you need to say during the presentation.
- remember to speak out clearly for people at the back to hear you.
- do not shout!
SYSTEM CONCEPT
LESSON 27
OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
These devices are examples of computer hardware. A computer system needs to have these hardware to function.
COMPUTER SYSTEM
A computer system is defined as combination of components designed to process data and store files.
A computer system consists of four major hardware components; input devices, output devices, processor and storage devices.
A computer system requires hardware, software and a user to fully function.
Software refers to set of instructions that tell the hardware what to do. Software can also have various other functions such as performing computation, communication with other software and human interaction.
User refers to a person who uses the computer for any purposes such as work, business and entertainment.
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Computer hardware consists of:
- input devices
- processor
- output devices
- storage devices
Input Devices
Input devices feed data or commands in a form that the computer can use. Example of input devices are:
§ Keyboard
§ Light Pen
§ Joystick
§ Microphone
§ Mouse
§ Video
§ Digital camera.
Processor
The CPU is an example of a processor. It has the same important as the brain to human being.
Output Devices
Output devices such as the monitor shows people the process data or information. This type of information can be understood and use by computer user. Other example of output devices are:
§ Printer
§ Plotter
§ Speaker
Storage Devices
Storage usually means secondary storage. It consists secondary storage devices such as hardisk, Floppy Disk, diskette, CD ROM and DVD
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
There a 2 types of computer software, system software and application software. System software is any computer software that helps to run computer system. System software controls, integrate and manages the individual component of a computer system.
LESSON 28
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM
COMPUTER HARDWARE BLOCK DIAGRAM
An Input device feed raw data to the processor. A processor processes raw data and turns it into useful information. A storage device keeps or stores both process and unprocess data for later usage. An output device shows or display the processed data.
INPUT DEVICES
When data is entered into the computer system, it is called an input. Input
comes in various forms; texts, graphics, audio and video. Input devices are
needed to input data into the computer system.
Keyboard, mouse, scanner, barcode reader and digital camera are some example of input devices.
OUTPUT DEVICES
Output is the result of raw input data that has been processed by the central processing unit into meaningful information. Common forms of output are texts, numbers, graphics, sounds, animations and videos.The most common output devices are computer screens, speakers and printers.
STORAGE DEVICES
The system’s primary storage, Random Access Memory (RAM) can only hold data temporarily. Thus, secondary storage is needed to provide additional storage. The data stored in the secondary storage is considered permanent until it is deleted or removed.
Secondary storage can be magnetic disks and optical disks. Examples of secondary storage are hard disks, rewritable CDs and DVDs as well as removable disks such as pen drives.
PERIPHERAL DEVICES
External hardware devices attached to the computer are called peripheral equipments.
LESSON 29
INFORMATION PROCESSING CYCLE
Do you know how a computer works? We use the computer in our everyday lives but not all of us know how this machine operates.
Human uses the brain to think, make decisions and process information. A computer has a brain too, and the brain of a computer is the processor or the central processing unit (CPU) that processes information.
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING
The central processing unit or the CPU is the brain of the computer.
All processing activities are done in the CPU. It utilises the computer memory to execute instructions from the application software and accomplish a task. For example: editing a letter, drawing a picture and sorting numbers.
The processor must be connected to input devices, output devices and storage devices to carry out the above mentioned tasks.
THE INFORMATION PROCESSING CYCLE
User will input the data to be processed by the processor.
The storage holds databases, files and programs. The output devices
present the processed data as useful information products for the user.
INPUT
Input is any data or instructions that we enter into the computer system for processing.
There are some common ways of feeding input data into the system, which are:
• typing on a keyboard
• pointing with a mouse
CPU accepts instruction from the user and translates the instruction into readable information (decode).
PROCESS
The processing unit controls all activities within the system. For every instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic operations called the machine cycle:
Fetching
the process of obtaining a program instructions or data item from memory.
Decoding
the process of translating a program instruction into signals that the computer can execute.
Executing
the process of implementing the instructions in a program.
Storing
the process of writing the result to the storage or memory.
STORAGE
Storage is a location which data, instruction and information are held for future use. Every computer uses storage to hold system software and application software.
When we issue a command to start the application software, the operating system locates the program in storage and loads it into memory.
A storage medium, also called secondary storage is the physical material in the computer that keeps data, instruction and information.
A storage device is the computer hardware that records or retrieves items to and from storage media.
OUTPUT
Output is data that has been processed into a useful form, called information. There are four types of output, which are texts, graphics, audio and video.
The text consists of characters that are used to create texts, sentences and paragraphs.
Graphics are digital representations of non text information such as drawings, charts and photographs.
Audio is music, speech or any other sound. Video consists of images that
provide the appearance of full motion.
LESSON 30
DATA REPRESENTATION
BINARY DIGIT
Computers recognize only two discrete states: on and off. These states can be represented by two digits, 0 and 1. Each 0 or 1 is called a bit in the binary system.
Bit is the smallest unit of data a computer can process. Bit is a short for binary digit. The binary system has a base of 2 with the two digits (0 and 1). Combinations of 0s and 1s represent larger numbers.
BIT
A bit is the smallest unit of data that the computer can process. Bit is a short for binary digit. A bit is represented by the numbers 1 and 0. These numbers represent the binary system. They correspond to the states of on and off, true and false, or yes and no.
All digital data use the binary system to process the information. This information include letters, digits or special character.
BYTE
Byte is a unit of information built from bits. One byte is equals to 8 bits. Eight bits that are grouped together as a unit. A byte provides enough different combinations of 0s and 1s to represent 256 individual characters.
One byte represents a single character such as the number 3, letter b
or a $ symbol. Bits and bytes are the basis for representing all meaningful information and programs on computers.
CHARACTER
8 bits = 1 byte
One byte represents one character such as A, 7, 9 and +.Eight bits that are grouped together as a unit. A byte provides enough different combinations of 0s and 1s to represent 256 individual characters.
For example, the capital letter F is represented by the binary code 01000110 that can be understood by the computer system. Eight bits grouped together as a unit are called a byte. A byte represents a single character in the
computer.
CHARACTER CODES
There are three character codes to represent characters which are ASCII, EBCDIC and Unicode. Each byte contains eight bits. A byte provides enough different combination of 0s and 1s to represent 256 characters.
The combinations of 0s and 1s are defined by patterns. These patterns are called coding scheme. The 256-character capability of ASCII and EBCDIC is too small to handle the characters that are used by other languages such as
Arabic, Japanese and Chinese.
The Unicode coding scheme is designed to solve this problem. It uses two bytes (16 bits) to represent one character. Unicode will have more than 65,000 different characters. This can cover all the world’s languages.
LESSON 31
INTRODUCTION TO BINARY CODING
COMMUNICATION CODES
Smoke signals, Morse code and semaphore are some of the communication codes used by people in the early days. In the information digital era, people send information via electronic devices such as through the computers.
Computers use binary codes to communicate. One of the widely used binary codes is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
HISTORY OF CHARACTER CODES
Before people used binary codes such as ASCII to communicate via computers, character codes were widely used as a medium of communication. Let’s look at some of the character codes used prior to the use of ASCII.
WHAT IS ASCII?
ASCII pronounced as "ask-key" stands for the American Standard Code for Information Interchange and was proposed by ASA (American Standard Association) in 963 and was finalised in 1968.ASCII is a standard of 7-bit code used to represent characters, which include letters, numbers and punctuation marks.
7 bits allow the computer to encode a total of 128 characters for the numbers 0-9, uppercase and lowercase letters A-Z and a few punctuation symbols. However this 128 bit code only suitable for english language speaking users.
IBM and Apple expanded the amount of space reserved for the character codes to 8-bits, equivalent to 1 byte.
FUNCTIONS OF ASCII
ASCII was established to achieve compatibility between various types of data processing equipment making it possible for the components to communicate with each other successfully.
ASCII enables manufacturers to produce components that are assured to operate correctly in a computer.
ASCII makes it possible for humans to interact with a computer. It also enables users to purchase components that are compatible with their computer configurations.
HOW ASCII WORKS IN A COMPUTER SYSTEM?
When you press a key, for example the letter D on your keyboard, the electronic signal is sent to the CPU for the computer to process and store in memory. Every character is converted to its corresponding binary form. The computer the processes the letter as a byte., which actually a series of on and off of electrical states. When the computer is finished processing the byte, the software installed in the system convert the byte back which is then displayed in the screen. In this example, the letter D is converted to 01000100.
LESSON 32
KILOBYTE (KB)
In mathematics, 1 KB = 1000 bytes.
In computer, 1 KB = 1024 bytes or
can be said as:
1 KB = 210 bytes
This is how we get the calculation for 1024 bytes.
MEGABYTE (MB)
1 MB = 1 048 576 bytes or it can be said as:
1 MB = 220 bytes
GIGABYTE (GB)
1 GB = 1 073 741 824 bytes or it can be said as:
1 GB = 230 bytes
TERABYTE (TB)
1 TB = 1 099 511 627 776 bytes or it can be said as:
1 TB = 240 bytes
LESSON 33
CLOCK SPEED MEASUREMENT
EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATION
When people talk about a computer’s “speed”, they mean how fast it can process data. In other words, this means the speed the computer can turn data into information.
Every microprocessor contains a system clock. The system clock controls the speed of all the operations within a computer. The speed of the clock is measured by how many cycles per second the clock makes.
HERTZ AND SECONDS
The clock speed unit is measured in hertz. A hertz is one cycle per second.
MEGAHERTZ (MHz)
Mega is a prefix that stands for million. Thus, megahertz (MHz) equals to one million cycles of the system clock. A computer that operates at 933 MHz (megahertz) has 933 million clock cycles in one second.
GIGAHERTZ (GHz)
Giga is a prefix that stands for billion.Gigahertz (GHz) equals to one billion cycles of the system clock.In relation with megahertz,1.0 GHz is equivalent to 1000 MHz.
For example, a microprocessor that runs at 200 GHz executes 200 billion cycles per second. This is what they are talking about if they say a computer is a 2.4 GHz machine. Its clock rate is 2.4 billion cycles per second.
GHz is most often used as a measurement of a PC processor chip and power, with bigger numbers meaning more speed and higher price.
PROCESSING SPEED
The system clock is one of the major factors that influence the computer speed. A CPU with a higher clock speed can process more instructions per second than a CPU with a lower clock speed. For example, a 1 GHz CPU is faster than a CPU operating at 800 MHz. The speed of the system clock affects only the CPU. It has no effect on peripherals such as a printer or disk drive.
MICROPROCESSOR SPEED
One way of comparing the performance of personal computers is by comparing their microprocessor speeds. Microprocessor speeds are determined by their clock speed and are usually expressed in gigahertz (GHz), billion of machine cycles per second.
For example, a personal computer that is listed at 2.2 GHz has a processor capable of handling 2.2 billion machine cycles per second. A top speed personal computer can be much faster, with newer ones exceeding 3.0 GHz.
Direct comparison of clock is meaningful between identical microprocessor.
Thus, it is accurate to say that a Pentium 4 running at 2.4 GHz is approximately one-third faster than a Pentium 4 running at 1.8 GHz.
SPEED
The combination of speed and number of paths determines the total processing speed or channel bandwidth. This is because different processors
often use different architectures. For this reason, a 1.4 GHz Pentium 4 performs better than a 1.4 GHz Pentium 3, but it is not as fast as a 1.4 GHz Power PC G4 processor.
